Adam Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments: An Exploration of Human Nature and Virtuous Living
“The Theory of Moral Sentiments,” written by Adam Smith (1723-1790) and first published in 1759, serves as a landmark text in the realm of moral philosophy. It presents Smith’s groundbreaking insights into human nature, empathy, and ethical conduct, framing a persuasive argument for living a virtuous life.
Smith’s text is predicated on the concept of sympathy, which he uses to denote the human capacity for empathy. He argues that human beings inherently possess an ability to understand and share the feelings of others, thus forming the basis for our moral judgments. This empathetic process, Smith suggests, is vital to maintaining social harmony and enhancing individual happiness.
In “The Theory of Moral Sentiments,” Smith identifies propriety and prudence as two fundamental virtues, but he gives particular emphasis to the virtue of benevolence. Smith suggests that the pursuit of self-interest should be complemented by care for the wellbeing of others. He argues that a virtuous life is not merely one of self-centered gain, but one marked by moral and empathetic engagement with others.
Smith exemplified his teachings in his own life. Known for his modest lifestyle, Smith is said to have demonstrated kindness and benevolence, once aiding a young student in securing a university position despite having no personal gain from the act. Smith’s actions underscored his belief that the pursuit of individual interests should be accompanied by consideration for the welfare of others.
His theory of moral sentiments, while rooted in his time, transcends it. Smith’s emphasis on empathy and social engagement as foundations for moral judgment and good life continues to resonate in our contemporary world.
Smith’s work has provoked extensive reflection and commentary among philosophers and social scientists. Philosopher and economist Amartya Sen has praised Smith’s work for its comprehensive approach to human wellbeing, stressing the importance of empathy and moral sentiment in economic behavior, an approach that extends beyond mere self-interest.
In contrast, Friedrich Hayek, a prominent economist and political philosopher, acknowledged Smith’s contributions but suggested that Smith’s emphasis on benevolence might underestimate the importance of self-interest and competition in promoting societal welfare.
Psychologist and linguist Steven Pinker has also drawn on Smith’s work, particularly his ideas on sympathy and its role in shaping human morality. Pinker uses Smith’s theory to support his own arguments about the innate human capacity for empathy and its role in guiding moral conduct.
Meanwhile, moral philosopher Martha Nussbaum has pointed to Smith’s work as a precursor to her own theory of moral emotions. She acknowledges Smith’s understanding of empathy as a basis for moral sentiments and aligns it with her emphasis on the role of emotions in ethical decision-making.
IAdam Smith’s “The Theory of Moral Sentiments” remains a seminal work in moral philosophy. It provides a compelling exploration of human nature, the role of empathy in moral judgment, and the pursuit of a virtuous life. Smith’s insights continue to inspire and inform debates in philosophy, economics, psychology, and beyond, testifying to the enduring relevance of his work.
Bibliography
Evensky, Jerry. “Adam Smith’s Moral Philosophy: A Historical and Contemporary Perspective on Markets, Law, Ethics, and Culture.” Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Fleischacker, Samuel. “On Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations: A Philosophical Companion.” Princeton University Press, 2004.
Hayek, Friedrich. “The Constitution of Liberty.” University of Chicago Press, 1960.
Nussbaum, Martha. “Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions.” Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Pinker, Steven. “The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined.” Viking, 2011.
Sen, Amartya. “The Idea of Justice.” Harvard University Press, 2009.
Smith, Adam. “The Theory of Moral Sentiments.” 1759.
- “How selfish soever man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature, which interest him in the fortune of others, and render their happiness necessary to him, though he derives nothing from it except the pleasure of seeing it.” (Part I, Section I, Chapter I)
- “To feel much for others and little for ourselves; to restrain our selfishness and exercise our benevolent affections, constitute the perfection of human nature.” (Part I, Section I, Chapter V)
- “The wise and virtuous man is at all times willing that his own private interest should be sacrificed to the public interest of his own particular order or society. He is at all times willing, too, that the interest of this order or society should be sacrificed to the greater interest of the state or sovereignty, of which it is only a subordinate part. He should, therefore, be equally willing that all those inferior interests should be sacrificed to the greater interest of the universe, to the interest of that great society of all sensible and intelligent beings, of which God himself is the immediate administrator and director.” (Part VI, Section II, Chapter II)
- “Man naturally desires, not only to be loved, but to be lovely; or to be that thing which is the natural and proper object of love.” (Part III, Chapter II)
Outline
Sympathy: The Foundation of Morality
- “How selfish soever man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature, which interest him in the fortune of others, and render their happiness necessary to him, though he derives nothing from it except the pleasure of seeing it.”
- Explores the innate human capacity for sympathy, emphasizing how individuals are naturally inclined to care about the well-being of others and experience pleasure in their happiness.
Moral Approbation: Principles of Judgment
- “To feel much for others and little for ourselves; to restrain our selfishness and exercise our benevolent affections, constitute the perfection of human nature.”
- Smith delves into the principles by which individuals form moral judgments, highlighting the importance of empathizing with others and subduing self-centeredness in order to achieve moral excellence.
Custom and Fashion: Influences on Morality
- “Man naturally desires, not only to be loved, but to be lovely; or to be that thing which is the natural and proper object of love.”
- This chapter examines how social customs and fashion shape moral sentiments and influence our moral evaluations, emphasizing the desire for acceptance and the need to conform to societal norms.
Language: Expressing Moral Sentiments
- “The powers of imitation and of expression are, however, very different, and while the one is often sufficient to account for the effects of language, we are frequently at a loss to discover any satisfactory reason for the effects of imitation.”
- Smith explores the role of language in expressing and communicating moral sentiments, highlighting the distinction between language’s impact and the influence of imitation in shaping moral behavior.
Wealth and Social Status: Impact on Morality
- “How many people ruin themselves by laying out money on trinkets of frivolous utility?”
- How wealth and social status affect moral sentiments, emphasizing the tendency for individuals to prioritize material possessions and overlook more significant moral considerations.
Prudence and Self-Control: Virtues of Decision-Making
- “Prudence is of all virtues that which is most helpful to the individual.”
- On the virtues of prudence and self-control, highlighting their significance in making wise decisions, exercising restraint, and promoting individual well-being.
Justice and Beneficence: Virtues in Social Interactions
- “The real perfection of man, according to this ancient doctrine, consists not so much in leaving this world as in living according to nature, in endeavoring to attain that perfection of which we are naturally capable.”
- Delves into the importance of justice in social interactions and emphasizes the virtue of beneficence in promoting the well-being of others, highlighting the pursuit of moral excellence in human relationships.
Sympathy and Antipathy: Effects in Society
- “By sympathizing with the hatred and abhorrence which other men must entertain for him, he becomes in some measure the object of his own hatred and abhorrence.”
- How sympathy and antipathy shape social relationships and interactions, emphasizing how individuals’ feelings toward others influence their own self-perception and the dynamics of society.
Pleasure and Pain: Pursuit of Happiness
- “The great source of both the misery and disorders of human life seems to arise from over-rating the difference between one permanent situation and another.”
- Examines the relationship between pleasure, pain, and moral sentiments, emphasizing the tendency for individuals to overestimate the significance of external circumstances on their happiness and well-being.
Conclusion
- “Man ought not only to be satisfied, but delighted with every part of his own character.”
- Smith emphasizes the importance of self-acceptance and contentment with one’s own character. He suggests that true fulfillment lies in recognizing and appreciating the virtues within oneself, fostering a sense of inner satisfaction and happiness.